Medical Physiology - Medical Course Subject
Introduction to Physiology Functional Organization of the Human Body and Control of the Internal Environment
1. Functional Organization of the Human Body and Control of the �Internal Environment�
2. Cells as the Living Units of the Body
3. Extracellular Fluid-The �Internal Environment�
4. �Homeostatic� Mechanisms of the Major Functional Systems
5. Control Systems of the Body
6. Examples of Control Mechanisms of the Body
7. Characteristics of Control Systems of the Body
Introduction to Physiology The Cell and Its Functions
1. Organization of the Cell
2. Physical Structure of the Cell
3. Membranous Structures of the Cell
4. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles - Physical Structure of the Cell
5. Nucleus and Nuclear Membrane - Physical Structure of the Cell
6. Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes
7. Comparison of the Animal Cell with Precellular Forms of Life
8. Functional Systems of the Cell
9. Ingestion by the Cell - Endocytosis - Functional Systems of the Cell
10. Digestion of Pinocytotic and Phagocytic Foreign Substances Inside the Cell - Function of the Lysosomes
11. Synthesis and Formation of Cellular Structures by Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
12. Extraction of Energy from Nutrients - Function of the Mitochondria
13. Locomotion of Cells
14. Ameboid Movement
15. Cilia and Ciliary Movements
Introduction to Physiology Genetic Control of Protein Synthesis Cell Function and Cell Reproduction
1. Genes in the Cell Nucleus
2. DNA Code in the Cell Nucleus Is Transferred to an RNA Code in the Cell Cytoplasm - The Process of Transcription
3. Synthesis of Other Substances in the Cell
4. Control of Gene Function and Biochemical Activity in Cells
5. The DNA-Genetic System Also Controls Cell Reproduction
6. Cell Differentiation
7. Apoptosis-Programmed Cell Death
8. Cancer
Membrane Physiology Nerve and Muscle Transport of Substances Through the Cell Membrane
1. The Lipid Barrier of the Cell Membrane, and Cell Membrane Transport Proteins
2. Diffusion
3. Diffusion Through the Cell Membrane
4. Diffusion Through Protein Channels, and �Gating� of These Channels
5. Facilitated Diffusion
6. Factors That Affect Net Rate of Diffusion
7. Osmosis Across Selectively Permeable Membranes - �Net Diffusion� of Water
8. �Active Transport� of Substances Through Membranes
9. Primary Active Transport
10. Secondary Active Transport - Co-Transport and Counter-Transport
11. Active Transport Through Cellular Sheets
Membrane Physiology Nerve and Muscle Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials
1. Basic Physics of Membrane Potentials
2. Measuring the Membrane Potential
3. Resting Membrane Potential of Nerves
4. Nerve Action Potential
5. Roles of Other Ions During the Action Potential
6. Propagation of the Action Potential
7. Re-establishing Sodium and Potassium Ionic Gradients After Action Potentials Are Completed
8. Plateau in Some Action Potentials
9. Rhythmicity of Some Excitable Tissues-Repetitive Discharge
10. Special Characteristics of Signal Transmission in Nerve Trunks
11. Excitation-The Process of Eliciting the Action Potential
12. Recording Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials
Membrane Physiology Nerve and Muscle Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
1. Physiologic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
2. General Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
3. Molecular Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
4. Molecular Characteristics of the Contractile Filaments
5. Effect of Amount of Actin and Myosin Filament Overlap on Tension Developed by the Contracting Muscle
6. Relation of Velocity of Contraction to Load
7. Energetics of Muscle Contraction
8. Characteristics of Whole Muscle Contraction
9. Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
10. Remodeling of Muscle to Match Function
11. Rigor Mortis
Excitation of Skeletal Muscle Neuromuscular Transmission and Excitation Contraction Coupling
1. Transmission of Impulses from Nerve Endings to Skeletal Muscle Fibers: The Neuromuscular Junction
2. Secretion of Acetylcholine by the Nerve Terminals
3. Molecular Biology of Acetylcholine Formation and Release
4. Drugs That Enhance or Block Transmission at the Neuromuscular Junction
5. Myasthenia Gravis
6. Muscle Action Potential
7. Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Contraction and Excitation of Smooth Muscle
1. Contraction of Smooth Muscle
2. Types of Smooth Muscle
3. Contractile Mechanism in Smooth Muscle
4. Regulation of Contraction of Smooth Muscle by Calcium Ions
5. Nervous and Hormonal Control of Smooth Muscle Contraction
6. Neuromuscular Junctions of Smooth Muscle
7. Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials in Smooth Muscle
8. Effect of Local Tissue Factors and Hormones to Cause Smooth Muscle Contraction Without Action Potentials
9. Source of Calcium Ions That Cause Contraction (1) Through the Cell Membrane and (2) from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Heart Muscle The Heart as a Pump and Function of the Heart Valves
1. Physiology of Cardiac Muscle
2. Physiologic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle
3. Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
4. The Cardiac Cycle
5. Diastole and Systole
6. Relationship of the Electrocardiogram to the Cardiac Cycle
7. Function of the Atria as Primer Pumps
8. Function of the Ventricles as Pumps
9. Function of the Valves
10. Aortic Pressure Curve
11. Relationship of the Heart Sounds to Heart Pumping
12. Work Output of the Heart: Graphical Analysis of Ventricular Pumping
13. Chemical Energy Required for Cardiac Contraction: Oxygen Utilization by the Heart
14. Regulation of Heart Pumping
Rhythmical Excitation of the Heart
1. Specialized Excitatory and Conductive System of the Heart
2. Sinus (Sinoatrial) Node
3. Internodal Pathways and Transmission of the Cardiac Impulse Through the Atria
4. Atrioventricular Node, and Delay of Impulse Conduction from the Atria to the Ventricles
5. Rapid Transmission in the Ventricular Purkinje System
6. Transmission of the Cardiac Impulse in the Ventricular Muscle
7. Control of Excitation and Conduction in the Heart
8. The Sinus Node as the Pacemaker of the Heart
9. Role of the Purkinje System in Causing Synchronous Contraction of the Ventricular Muscle
10. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nerves
The Normal Electrocardiogram
1. Characteristics of the Normal Electrocardiogram
2. Methods for Recording Electrocardiograms
3. Flow of Current Around the Heart During the Cardiac Cycle
4. Electrocardiographic Leads: Three Bipolar Limb Leads, Chest Leads (Precordial Leads), Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads
Electrocardiographic Interpretation of Cardiac Muscle and Coronary Blood Flow Abnormalities Vectorial Analysis
1. Principles of Vectorial Analysis of Electrocardiograms
2. Vectorial Analysis of the Normal Electrocardiogram
3. Mean Electrical Axis of the Ventricular QRS - And Its Significance
4. Conditions That Cause Abnormal Voltages of the QRS Complex
5. Prolonged and Bizarre Patterns of the QRS Complex - Electrocardiographic
6. Current of Injury - Electrocardiographic Interpretation of Cardiac
7. Abnormalities in the T Wave - Electrocardiographic Interpretation of Cardiac Muscle and Coronary Blood Flow Abnormalities
Cardiac Arrhythmias and Their Electrocardiographic Interpretation
1. Cardiac Arrhythmias and Their Electrocardiographic Interpretation
2. Abnormal Sinus Rhythms
3. Tachycardia - Abnormal Sinus Rhythms
4. Bradycardia - Abnormal Sinus Rhythms
5. Sinus Arrhythmia - Abnormal Sinus Rhythms
6. Abnormal Rhythms That Result from Block of Heart Signals Within the Intracardiac Conduction Pathways
7. Premature Contractions
8. Paroxysmal Tachycardia
9. Atrial Paroxysmal Tachycardia
10. Ventricular Paroxysmal Tachycardia
11. Ventricular Fibrillation
12. Atrial Fibrillation
13. Atrial Flutter
14. Cardiac Arrest
Overview of the Circulation Medical Physics of Pressure Flow and Resistance
1. Physical Characteristics of the Circulation
2. Basic Theory of Circulatory Function
3. Interrelationships Among Pressure, Flow, and Resistance
4. Blood Flow
5. Blood Pressure
6. Resistance to Blood Flow
7. Effects of Pressure on Vascular Resistance and Tissue Blood Flow
Vascular Distensibility and Functions of the Arterial and Venous Systems
1. Vascular Distensibility
2. Arterial Pressure Pulsations
3. Veins and Their Functions
4. Venous Pressures-Right Atrial Pressure (Central Venous Pressure) and Peripheral Venous Pressures
5. Blood Reservoir Function of the Veins
The Microcirculation and the Lymphatic System Capillary Fluid Exchange Interstitial Fluid and Lymph Flow
1. Structure of the Microcirculation and Capillary System
2. Flow of Blood in the Capillaries-Vasomotion
3. Exchange of Water, Nutrients, and Other Substances Between the Blood and Interstitial Fluid
4. The Interstitium and Interstitial Fluid
5. Fluid Filtration Across Capillaries Is Determined by Hydrostatic and Colloid Osmotic Pressures, and Capillary Filtration Coefficient
6. Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure
7. Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure
8. Plasma Colloid Osmotic Pressure
9. Interstitial Fluid Colloid Osmotic Pressure
10. Exchange of Fluid Volume Through the Capillary Membrane
11. Starling Equilibrium for Capillary Exchange
12. Lymphatic System
13. Lymph Channels of the Body
14. Formation of Lymph
15. Rate of Lymph Flow
Local and Humoral Control of Blood Flow by the Tissues
1. Local Control of Blood Flow in Response to Tissue Needs
2. Mechanisms of Blood Flow Control
3. Acute Control of Local Blood Flow - Mechanisms of Blood Flow Control
4. Long-Term Blood Flow Regulation - Mechanisms of Blood Flow Control
5. Development of Collateral Circulation-A Phenomenon of Long- Term Local Blood Flow Regulation
6. Humoral Control of the Circulation
7. Vascular Control by Ions and Other Chemical Factors
Nervous Regulation of the Circulation and Rapid Control of Arterial Pressure
1. Nervous Regulation of the Circulation
2. Role of the Nervous System in Rapid Control of Arterial Pressure
3. Increase in Arterial Pressure During Muscle Exercise and Other Types of Stress
4. Reflex Mechanisms for Maintaining Normal Arterial Pressure
5. Central Nervous System Ischemic Response
6. Special Features of Nervous Control of Arterial Pressure
Dominant Role of the Kidney in Long Term Regulation of Arterial Pressure and in Hypertension The Integrated System for Pressure Control
1. Renal-Body Fluid System for Arterial Pressure Control
2. Quantitation of Pressure Diuresis as a Basis for Arterial Pressure Control
3. Chronic Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) Is Caused by Impaired Renal Fluid Excretion
4. The Renin-Angiotensin System: Its Role in Pressure Control and in Hypertension
5. Components of the Renin-Angiotensin System
6. Types of Hypertension in Which Angiotensin Is Involved
7. Other Types of Hypertension Caused by Combinations of Volume Loading and Vasoconstriction
8. �Primary (Essential) Hypertension�
9. Summary of the Integrated, Multifaceted System for Arterial Pressure Regulation
Cardiac Output Venous Return and Their Regulation
1. Normal Values for Cardiac Output at Rest and During Activity
2. Control of Cardiac Output by Venous Return-Role of the Frank-Starling Mechanism of the Heart
3. The Heart Has Limits for the Cardiac Output That It Can Achieve
4. What Is the Role of the Nervous System in Controlling Cardiac Output?
5. Pathologically High and Pathologically Low Cardiac Outputs
6. High Cardiac Output Caused by Reduced Total Peripheral Resistance
7. Low Cardiac Output
8. A More Quantitative Analysis of Cardiac Output Regulation
9. Cardiac Output Curves Used in the Quantitative Analysis
10. Venous Return Curves
11. Analysis of Cardiac Output and Right Atrial Pressure, Using Simultaneous Cardiac Output and Venous Return Curves
12. Methods for Measuring Cardiac Output
Muscle Blood Flow and Cardiac Output During Exercise the Coronary Circulation and schemic Heart Disease
1. Blood Flow in Skeletal Muscle and Blood Flow Regulation During Exercise
2. Rate of Blood Flow Through the Muscles
3. Control of Blood Flow Through the Skeletal Muscles
4. Total Body Circulatory Readjustments During Exercise
5. Coronary Circulation
6. Physiologic Anatomy of the Coronary Blood Supply
7. Normal Coronary Blood Flow
8. Control of Coronary Blood Flow
9. Special Features of Cardiac Muscle Metabolism
10. Ischemic Heart Disease
11. Causes of Death After Acute Coronary Occlusion
12. Stages of Recovery from Acute Myocardial Infarction
13. Function of the Heart After Recovery from Myocardial Infarction
14. Pain in Coronary Heart Disease
15. Surgical Treatment of Coronary Disease
Cardiac Failure
1. Acute Effects of Moderate Cardiac Failure
2. Chronic Stage of Failure-Fluid Retention Helps to Compensate Cardiac Output
3. Summary of the Changes That Occur After Acute Cardiac Failure- �Compensated Heart Failure�
4. Dynamics of Severe Cardiac Failure- Decompensated Heart Failure
5. Unilateral Left Heart Failure
6. Low-Output Cardiac Failure- Cardiogenic Shock
7. Edema in Patients with Cardiac Failure
8. Cardiac Reserve
9. Quantitative Graphical Method for Analysis of Cardiac Failure
Heart Valves and Heart Sounds Dynamics of Valvular and Congenital Heart Defects
1. Normal Heart Sounds
2. Valvular Lesions - Heart Sounds
3. Abnormal Circulatory Dynamics in Valvular Heart Disease
4. Abnormal Circulatory Dynamics in Congenital Heart Defects
5. Use of Extracorporeal Circulation During Cardiac Surgery
6. Hypertrophy of the Heart in Valvular and Congenital Heart Disease
Circulatory Shock and Physiology of Its Treatment
1. Physiologic Causes of Shock
2. Shock Caused by Hypovolemia-Hemorrhagic Shock
3. Relationship of Bleeding Volume to Cardiac Output and Arterial Pressure
4. Progressive and Nonprogressive Hemorrhagic Shock
5. Irreversible Shock
6. Hypovolemic Shock Caused by Plasma Loss
7. Hypovolemic Shock Caused by Trauma
8. Neurogenic Shock-Increased Vascular Capacity
9. Anaphylactic Shock and Histamine Shock
10. Septic Shock
11. Physiology of Treatment in Shock
12. Circulatory Arrest
13. Effect of Circulatory Arrest on the Brain
The Body Fluid Compartments Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids Interstitial Fluid and Edema
1. Fluid Intake and Output Are Balanced During Steady-State Conditions
2. Daily Intake of Water
3. Daily Loss of Body Water
4. Body Fluid Compartments
5. Blood Volume
6. Constituents of Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids
7. Measurement of Fluid Volumes in the Different Body Fluid Compartments-The Indicator-Dilution Principle
8. Determination of Volumes of Specific Body Fluid Compartments
9. Regulation of Fluid Exchange and Osmotic Equilibrium Between Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid
10. Basic Principles of Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
11. Osmotic Equilibrium Is Maintained Between Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids
12. Volume and Osmolality of Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids in Abnormal States
13. Effect of Adding Saline Solution to the Extracellular Fluid
14. Glucose and Other Solutions Administered for Nutritive Purposes
15. Clinical Abnormalities of Fluid Volume Regulation: Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia
16. Edema: Excess Fluid in the Tissues
17. Intracellular Edema
18. Extracellular Edema
19. Summary of Causes of Extracellular Edema
20. Safety Factors That Normally Prevent Edema
21. Fluids in the �Potential Spaces� of the Body
Urine Formation by the Kidneys I Glomerular Filtration Renal Blood Flow and Their Control
1. Multiple Functions of the Kidneys in Homeostasis
2. Physiologic Anatomy of the Kidneys
3. General Organization of the Kidneys and Urinary Tract
4. Renal Blood Supply
5. The Nephron Is the Functional Unit of the Kidney
6. Micturition
7. Physiologic Anatomy and Nervous Connections of the Bladder
8. Transport of Urine from the Kidney Through the Ureters and into the Bladder
9. Filling of the Bladder and Bladder Wall Tone; the Cystometrogram
10. Micturition Reflex
11. Abnormalities of Micturition
12. Urine Formation Results from Glomerular Filtration, Tubular Reabsorption, and Tubular Secretion
13. Glomerular Filtration-The First Step in Urine Formation
14. Determinants of the GFR
15. Renal Blood Flow
16. Physiologic Control of Glomerular Filtration and Renal Blood Flow
17. Autoregulation of GFR and Renal Blood Flow
Urine Formation by the Kidneys II Tubular Processing of the Glomerular Filtrate
1. Reabsorption and Secretion by the Renal Tubules
2. Tubular Reabsorption Includes Passive and Active Mechanisms
3. Active Transport - Tubular Reabsorption Includes Passive and Active Mechanisms
4. Passive Water Reabsorption by Osmosis Is Coupled Mainly to Sodium Reabsorption
5. Reabsorption of Chloride, Urea, and Other Solutes by Passive Diffusion
6. Reabsorption and Secretion Along Different Parts of the Nephron
7. Proximal Tubular Reabsorption
8. Solute and Water Transport in the Loop of Henle
9. Distal Tubule
10. Late Distal Tubule and Cortical Collecting Tubule
11. Medullary Collecting Duct
12. Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption
13. Use of Clearance Methods to Quantify Kidney Function
Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity and Sodium Concentration
1. Kidneys Excrete Excess Water by Forming a Dilute Urine
2. Kidneys Conserve Water by Excreting a Concentrated Urine
3. Obligatory Urine Volume
4. Requirements for Excreting a Concentrated Urine-High ADH Levels and Hyperosmotic Renal Medulla
5. Countercurrent Mechanism Produces a Hyperosmotic Renal Medullary Interstitium
6. Role of Distal Tubule and Collecting Ducts in Excreting a Concentrated Urine
7. Urea Contributes to Hyperosmotic Renal Medullary Interstitium and to a Concentrated Urine
8. Countercurrent Exchange in the Vasa Recta Preserves Hyperosmolarity of the Renal Medulla
9. Quantifying Renal Urine Concentration and Dilution: �Free Water� and Osmolar Clearances
10. Disorders of Urinary Concentrating Ability
11. Control of Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity and Sodium Concentration
12. Osmoreceptor-ADH Feedback System
13. Role of Thirst in Controlling Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity and Sodium Concentration
14. Salt-Appetite Mechanism for Controlling Extracellular Fluid Sodium Concentration and Volume
Renal Regulation of Potassium Calcium Phosphate and Magnesium Integration of Renal Mechanisms for Control of Blood Volume and Extracellular Fluid Volume
1. Regulation of Potassium Excretion and Potassium Concentration in Extracellular Fluid
2. Regulation of Internal Potassium Distribution
3. Overview of Renal Potassium Excretion
4. Potassium Secretion by Principal Cells of Late Distal and Cortical Collecting Tubules
5. Summary of Factors That Regulate Potassium Secretion
6. Control of Renal Calcium Excretion and Extracellular Calcium Ion Concentration
7. Control of Renal Magnesium Excretion and Extracellular Magnesium Ion Concentration
8. Integration of Renal Mechanisms for Control of Extracellular Fluid
9. Importance of Pressure Natriuresis and Pressure Diuresis in Maintaining Body Sodium and Fluid Balance
10. Distribution of Extracellular Fluid Between the Interstitial Spaces and Vascular System
11. Nervous and Hormonal Factors Increase the Effectiveness of Renal-Body Fluid Feedback Control
12. Role of Angiotensin II In Controlling Renal Excretion
13. Role of Aldosterone in Controlling Renal Excretion
14. Role of ADH in Controlling Renal Water Excretion
15. Role of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide in Controlling Renal Excretion
16. Integrated Responses to Changes in Sodium Intake
17. Conditions That Cause Large Increases in Blood Volume and Extracellular Fluid Volume
18. Conditions That Cause Large Increases in Extracellular Fluid Volume but with Normal Blood Volume
Regulation of Acid Base Balance
1. Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
2. Hydrogen Ion Concentration Is Precisely Regulated
3. Acids and Bases-Their Definitions and Meanings
4. Defenses Against Changes in Hydrogen Ion Concentration: Buffers, Lungs, and Kidneys
5. Buffering of Hydrogen Ions in the Body Fluids
6. Bicarbonate Buffer System
7. Quantitative Dynamics of the Bicarbonate Buffer System
8. Phosphate Buffer System
9. Proteins: Important Intracellular Buffers
10. Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
11. Renal Control of Acid-Base Balance
12. Secretion of Hydrogen Ions and Reabsorption of Bicarbonate Ions by the Renal Tubules
13. Combination of Excess Hydrogen Ions with Phosphate and Ammonia Buffers in the Tubule-A Mechanism for Generating �New� Bicarbonate Ions
14. Quantifying Renal Acid-Base Excretion
15. Regulation of Renal Tubular Hydrogen Ion Secretion
16. Acidosis Decreases the Ratio of HCO3-/H+ in Renal Tubular Fluid
17. Alkalosis Increases the Ratio of HCO3-/H+ in Renal Tubular Fluid
18. Clinical Causes of Acid-Base Disorders
19. Treatment of Acidosis or Alkalosis
20. Clinical Measurements and Analysis of Acid-Base Disorders
21. Complex Acid-Base Disorders and Use of the Acid-Base Nomogram for Diagnosis
22. Use of Anion Gap to Diagnose Acid-Base Disorders
Kidney Diseases and Diuretics
1. Diuretics and Their Mechanisms of Action
2. Kidney Diseases
3. Acute Renal Failure
4. Prerenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Decreased Blood Flow to the Kidney
5. Intrarenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Abnormalities Within the Kidney
6. Postrenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Abnormalities of the Lower Urinary Tract
7. Physiologic Effects of Acute Renal Failure
8. Chronic Renal Failure: An Irreversible Decrease in the Number of Functional Nephrons
9. Vicious Circle of Chronic Renal Failure Leading to End-Stage Renal Disease
10. Injury to the Renal Vasculature as a Cause of Chronic Renal Failure
11. Injury to the Glomeruli as a Cause of Chronic Renal Failure- lomerulonephritis
12. Injury to the Renal Interstitium as a Cause of Chronic Renal Failure- Pyelonephritis
13. Nephrotic Syndrome-Excretion of Protein in the Urine Because of Increased Glomerular Permeability
14. Nephron Function in Chronic Renal Failure
15. Effects of Renal Failure on the Body Fluids-Uremia
16. Hypertension and Kidney Disease
17. Specific Tubular Disorders
18. Treatment of Renal Failure by Dialysis with an Artificial Kidney
Red Blood Cells Anemia and Polycythemia
1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
2. Formation of Hemoglobin
3. Iron Metabolism - Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
4. Life Span and Destruction of Red Blood Cells
5. Anemias
6. Effects of Anemia on Function of the Circulatory System
7. Polycythemia
8. Effect of Polycythemia on Function of the Circulatory System
Resistance of the Body to Infection I Leukocytes Granulocytes the Monocyte Macrophage System and Inflammation
1. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
2. General Characteristics of Leukocytes
3. Genesis of the White Blood Cells
4. Life Span of the White Blood Cells
5. Neutrophils and Macrophages Defend Against Infections
6. Phagocytosis
7. Monocyte-Macrophage Cell System (Reticuloendothelial System)
8. Inflammation: Role of Neutrophils and Macrophages
9. Eosinophils
10. Basophils
11. Leukopenia
12. Leukemias and Effects of Leukemia on the Body
Resistance of the Body to Infection II Immunity and Allergy
1. Innate Immunity
2. Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity
3. Lymphocytes Are Responsible for Acquired Immunity
4. Preprocessing of the T and B Lymphocytes
5. T Lymphocytes and B-Lymphocyte Antibodies React Highly Specifically Against Specific Antigens
6. Origin of the Many Clones of Lymphocytes
7. Specific Attributes of the B-Lymphocyte System - Humoral Immunity and the Antibodies
8. Special Attributes of the T-Lymphocyte System - Activated T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity
9. Several Types of T Cells and Their Different Functions
10. Tolerance of the Acquired Immunity System to One�s Own Tissues - Role of Preprocessing in the Thymus and Bone Marrow
11. Immunization by Injection of Antigens
12. Passive Immunity
13. Allergy and Hypersensitivity
14. Allergies in the �Allergic� Person, Who Has Excess IgE Antibodies
Blood Types Transfusion Tissue and Organ Transplantation
1. Antigenicity Causes Immune Reactions of Blood
2. O-A-B Blood Types
3. Rh Blood Types
4. Rh Immune Response
5. Transfusion Reactions Resulting from Mismatched Blood Types
6. Transplantation of Tissues and Organs
Hemostasis and Blood Coagulation
1. Events in Hemostasis
2. Mechanism of Blood Coagulation
3. Conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin
4. Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin- Formation of the Clot
5. Vicious Circle of Clot Formation - Mechanism of Blood Coagulation
6. Initiation of Coagulation: Formation of Prothrombin Activator
7. Prevention of Blood Clotting in the Normal Vascular System- Intravascular Anticoagulants
8. Lysis of Blood Clots- Plasmin
9. Conditions That Cause Excessive Bleeding in Human Beings
10. Thromboembolic Conditions in the Human Being
11. Anticoagulants for Clinical Use
12. Blood Coagulation Tests
Pulmonary Ventilation
1. Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation
2. Muscles That Cause Lung Expansion and Contraction
3. Movement of Air In and Out of the Lungs and the Pressures That Cause the Movement
4. Effect of the Thoracic Cage on Lung Expansibility
5. Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities
6. Minute Respiratory Volume Equals Respiratory Rate Times Tidal Volume
7. Alveolar Ventilation
8. Functions of the Respiratory Passageways
9. Normal Respiratory Functions of the Nose
10. Vocalization - Functions of the Respiratory Passageways
Pulmonary Circulation Pulmonary Edema Pleural Fluid
1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Pulmonary Circulatory System
2. Pressures in the Pulmonary System
3. Blood Flow Through the Lungs and Its Distribution
4. Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure Gradients in the Lungs on Regional Pulmonary Blood Flow
5. Pulmonary Capillary Dynamics
6. Capillary Exchange of Fluid in the Lungs, and Pulmonary Interstitial Fluid Dynamics
7. Pulmonary Edema
8. Fluid in the Pleural Cavity
Physical Principles of Gas Exchange Diffusion of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Through the Respiratory Membrane
1. Physics of Gas Diffusion and Gas Partial Pressures
2. Composition of Alveolar Air - Its Relation to Atmospheric Air
3. Diffusion of Gases Through the Respiratory Membrane
4. Factors That Affect the Rate of Gas Diffusion Through the Respiratory Membrane
5. Diffusing Capacity of the Respiratory Membrane
6. Effect of the Ventilation-Perfusion Ratio on Alveolar Gas Concentration
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Blood and Tissue Fluids
1. Transport of Oxygen from the Lungs to the Body Tissues
2. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Alveoli to the Pulmonary Capillary Blood
3. Transport of Oxygen in the Arterial Blood
4. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Peripheral Capillaries into the Tissue Fluid
5. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Peripheral Capillaries to the Tissue Cells
6. Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide from the Peripheral Tissue Cells into the Capillaries and from the Pulmonary Capillaries into the Alveoli
7. Role of Hemoglobin in Oxygen Transport
8. Reversible Combination of Oxygen with Hemoglobin
9. Effect of Hemoglobin to �Buffer� the Tissue PO2
10. Factors That Shift the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve - Their Importance for Oxygen Transport
11. Metabolic Use of Oxygen by the Cells
12. Transport of Oxygen in the Dissolved State
13. Combination of Hemoglobin with Carbon Monoxide -Displacement of Oxygen
14. Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
15. Respiratory Exchange Ratio
Regulation of Respiration
1. Respiratory Center
2. Chemical Control of Respiration
3. Peripheral Chemoreceptor System for Control of Respiratory Activity - Role of Oxygen in Respiratory Control
4. Regulation of Respiration During Exercise
5. Other Factors That Affect Respiration
6. Sleep Apnea
Respiratory Insufficiency Pathophysiology Diagnosis Oxygen Therapy
1. Respiratory Insufficiency-Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Oxygen Therapy
2. Study of Blood Gases and Blood pH
3. Measurement of Maximum Expiratory Flow
4. Forced Expiratory Vital Capacity and Forced Expiratory Volume
5. Physiologic Peculiarities of Specific Pulmonary Abnormalities
6. Chronic Pulmonary Emphysema
7. Pneumonia
8. Atelectasis
9. Asthma
10. Tuberculosis
11. Hypoxia and Oxygen Therapy
12. Hypercapnia
13. Artificial Respiration
Aviation High Altitude and Space Physiology
1. Effects of Low Oxygen Pressure on the Body
2. Alveolar PO2 at Different Elevations
3. Effect of Breathing Pure Oxygen on Alveolar PO2 at Different Altitudes
4. Acute Effects of Hypoxia
5. Acclimatization to Low PO2
6. Natural Acclimatization of Native Human Beings Living at High Altitudes
7. Reduced Work Capacity at High Altitudes and Positive Effect of Acclimatization
8. Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema
9. Chronic Mountain Sickness
10. Effects of Acceleratory Forces on the Body in Aviation and Space Physiology
11. �Artificial Climate� in the Sealed Spacecraft
12. Weightlessness in Space
Physiology of Deep Sea Diving and Other Hyperbaric Conditions
1. Physiology of Deep-Sea Diving and Other Hyperbaric Conditions
2. Effect of High Partial Pressures of Individual Gases on the Body
3. Nitrogen Narcosis at High Nitrogen Pressures
4. Oxygen Toxicity at High Pressures
5. Carbon Dioxide Toxicity at Great Depths in the Sea
6. Decompression of the Diver After Excess Exposure to High Pressure
7. Scuba (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) Diving
8. Special Physiologic Problems in Submarines
9. Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
Organization of the Nervous System Basic Functions of Synapses Transmitter Substances
1. General Design of the Nervous System
2. Major Levels of Central Nervous System Function
3. Comparison of the Nervous System with a Computer
4. Central Nervous System Synapses
5. Types of Synapses-Chemical and Electrical - Central Nervous System Synapses
6. Physiologic Anatomy of the Synapse - Central Nervous System Synapses
7. Chemical Substances That Function as Synaptic Transmitters - Central Nervous System Synapses
8. Electrical Events During Neuronal Excitation - Central Nervous System Synapses
9. Electrical Events During Neuronal Inhibition - Central Nervous System Synapses
10. Special Functions of Dendrites for Exciting Neurons - Central Nervous System Synapses
11. Relation of State of Excitation of the Neuron to Rate of Firing - Central Nervous System Synapses
12. Some Special Characteristics of Synaptic Transmission
Sensory Receptors Neuronal Circuits for Processing Information
1. Types of Sensory Receptors and the Sensory Stimuli They Detect
2. Transduction of Sensory Stimuli into Nerve Impulses
3. Nerve Fibers That Transmit Different Types of Signals, and Their Physiologic Classification
4. Transmission of Signals of Different Intensity in Nerve Tracts-Spatial and Temporal Summation
5. Transmission and Processing of Signals in Neuronal Pools
6. Relaying of Signals Through Neuronal Pools
7. Prolongation of a Signal by a Neuronal Pool-�Afterdischarge�
8. Instability and Stability of Neuronal Circuits
Somatic Sensations I General Organization the Tactile and Position Senses
1. Classification of Somatic Senses
2. Detection and Transmission of Tactile Sensations
3. Sensory Pathways for Transmitting Somatic Signals into the Central Nervous System
4. Anatomy of the Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal System
5. Somatosensory Cortex
6. Somatosensory Association Areas
7. Overall Characteristics of Signal Transmission and Analysis in the Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal System
8. Interpretation of Sensory Stimulus Intensity
9. Judgment of Stimulus Intensity
10. Position Senses(proprioceptive senses)
11. Transmission of Less Critical Sensory Signals in the Anterolateral Pathway
12. Some Special Aspects of Somatosensory Function
Somatic Sensations II Pain Headache and Thermal Sensations
1. Types of Pain and Their Qualities-Fast Pain and Slow Pain
2. Pain Receptors and Their Stimulation
3. Dual Pathways for Transmission of Pain Signals into the Central Nervous System
4. Pain Suppression (�Analgesia�) System in the Brain and Spinal Cord
5. Referred Pain
6. Visceral Pain
7. Causes of True Visceral Pain
8. Some Clinical Abnormalities of Pain and Other Somatic Sensations
9. Headache
10. Headache of Intracranial Origin
11. Types of Intracranial Headache
12. Extracranial Types of Headache
13. Thermal Receptors and Their Excitation
14. Transmission of Thermal Signals in the Nervous System
The Eye I Optics of Vision
1. Physical Principles of Optics - Eye
2. The Eye as a Camera - Optics of the Eye
3. Mechanism of �Accommodation� - Optics of the Eye
4. Pupillary Diameter - Optics of the Eye
5. Errors of Refraction - Optics of the Eye
6. Visual Acuity - Optics of the Eye
7. Determination of Distance of an Object from the Eye- �Depth Perception�
8. Ophthalmoscope
9. Fluid System of the Eye- Intraocular Fluid
The Eye II Receptor and Neural Function of the Retina
1. Anatomy and Function of the Structural Elements of the Retina
The Eye I Optics of Vision
1. Photochemistry of Eye Vision
The Eye II Receptor and Neural Function of the Retina
1. Rhodopsin Retinal Visual Cycle, and Excitation of the Rods - Photochemistry of Eye Vision
2. Automatic Regulation of Retinal Sensitivity-Light and Dark Adaptation - Photochemistry of Eye Vision
3. Color Vision: Tricolor Mechanism of Color Detection, Color Blindness
4. Neural Circuitry of the Retina - Neural Function of the Retina
5. Ganglion Cells and Optic Nerve Fibers - Neural Function of the Retina
6. Excitation of the Ganglion Cells - Neural Function of the Retina
The Eye III Central Neurophysiology of Vision
1. Visual Pathways
2. Organization and Function of the Visual Cortex
3. Neuronal Patterns of Stimulation During Analysis of the Visual Image
4. Fields of Vision; Perimetry
5. Eye Movements and Their Control
6. Fixation Movements of the Eyes
7. �Fusion� of the Visual Images from the Two Eyes
8. Autonomic Control of Accommodation and Pupillary Aperture
9. Control of Accommodation (Focusing the Eyes)
10. Control of Pupillary Diameter
The Sense of Hearing
1. Tympanic Membrane and the Ossicular System
2. Functional Anatomy of the Cochlea
3. Transmission of Sound Waves in the Cochlea-�Traveling Wave�
4. Function of the Organ of Corti
5. Determination of Sound Frequency- The �Place� Principle - Cochlea
6. Determination of Loudness
7. Auditory Nervous Pathways
8. Function of the Cerebral Cortex in Hearing
9. Determination of the Direction from Which Sound Comes
10. Centrifugal Signals from the Central Nervous System to Lower Auditory Centers
11. Hearing Abnormalities: Types of Deafness
The Chemical Senses Taste and Smell
1. Sense of Taste
2. Primary Sensations of Taste
3. Taste Bud and Its Function
4. Transmission of Taste Signals into the Central Nervous System
5. Taste Preference and Control of the Diet
6. Sense of Smell
7. Olfactory Membrane - Sense of Smell
8. Stimulation of the Olfactory Cells - Sense of Smell
9. Transmission of Smell Signals into the Central Nervous System
Motor Functions of the Spinal Cord the Cord Reflexes
1. Organization of the Spinal Cord for Motor Functions
2. Muscle Sensory Receptors- Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs-And Their Roles in Muscle Control
3. Receptor Function of the Muscle Spindle
4. Muscle Stretch Reflex
5. Role of the Muscle Spindle in Voluntary Motor Activity
6. Clinical Applications of the Stretch Reflex
7. Golgi Tendon Reflex
8. Function of the Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organ
9. Flexor Reflex and the Withdrawal Reflexes
10. Crossed Extensor Reflex
11. Reciprocal Inhibition and Reciprocal Innervation
12. Postural and Locomotive Reflexes of the Cord
13. Scratch Reflex
14. Spinal Cord Reflexes That Cause Muscle Spasm
15. Autonomic Reflexes in the Spinal Cord
16. Spinal Cord Transection and Spinal Shock
Cortical and Brain Stem Control of Motor Function
1. Motor Cortex and Corticospinal Tract
2. Some Specialized Areas of Motor Control Found in the Human Motor Cortex
3. Transmission of Signals from the Motor Cortex to the Muscles
4. Incoming Fiber Pathways to the Motor Cortex
5. Red Nucleus Serves as an Alternative Pathway for Transmitting Cortical Signals to the Spinal Cord
6. �Extrapyramidal� System
7. Excitation of the Spinal Cord Motor Control Areas by the Primary Motor Cortex and Red Nucleus
8. Role of the Brain Stem in Controlling Motor Function
9. Support of the Body Against Gravity- Roles of the Reticular and Vestibular Nuclei
10. Vestibular Apparatus
11. Function of the Utricle and Saccule in the Maintenance of Static Equilibrium
12. Detection of Head Rotation by the Semicircular Ducts
13. Vestibular Mechanisms for Stabilizing the Eyes
14. Other Factors Concerned with Equilibrium - Vestibular Mechanisms
15. Functions of Brain Stem Nuclei in Controlling Subconscious, Stereotyped Movements
Contributions of the Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia to Overall Motor Control
1. Cerebellum and Its Motor Functions
2. Anatomical Functional Areas of the Cerebellum
3. Neuronal Circuit of the Cerebellum
4. Function of the Cerebellum in Overall Motor Control
5. Clinical Abnormalities of the Cerebellum
6. Basal Ganglia-Their Motor Functions
7. Clinical Syndromes Resulting from Damage to the Basal Ganglia
8. Integration of the Many Parts of the Total Motor Control System
Cerebral Cortex Intellectual Functions of the Brain Learning and Memory
1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex
2. Functions of Specific Cortical Areas
3. Association Areas - Functions of Specific Cortical Areas
4. Comprehensive Interpretative Function of the Posterior Superior Temporal Lobe-�Wernicke�s Area� (a General Interpretative Area)
5. Functions of the Parieto-occipitotemporal Cortex in the Nondominant Hemisphere
6. Higher Intellectual Functions of the Prefrontal Association Areas
7. Function of the Brain in Communication-Language Input and Language Output
8. Function of the Corpus Callosum and Anterior Commissure
9. Thoughts, Consciousness, and Memory
10. Memory-Roles of Synaptic Facilitation and Synaptic Inhibition
11. Short-Term Memory
12. Intermediate Long-Term Memory
13. Long-Term Memory
14. Consolidation of Memory
Behavioral and Motivational Mechanisms of the Brain The Limbic System and the Hypothalamus
1. Activating-Driving Systems of the Brain
2. Control of Cerebral Activity by Continuous Excitatory Signals from the Brain Stem
3. Neurohormonal Control of Brain Activity
4. Limbic System
5. Functional Anatomy of the Limbic System; Key Position of the Hypothalamus
6. Hypothalamus, a Major Control Headquarters for the Limbic System
7. Vegetative and Endocrine Control Functions of the Hypothalamus
8. Behavioral Functions of the Hypothalamus and Associated Limbic Structures
9. �Reward� and �Punishment� Function of the Limbic System
10. Importance of Reward or Punishment in Behavior
11. Functions of the Hippocampus
12. Functions of the Amygdala
13. Function of the Limbic Cortex
States of Brain Activity Sleep Brain Waves Epilepsy Psychoses
1. Sleep and Two Types of Sleep
2. Slow-Wave Sleep
3. REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep, Desynchronized Sleep)
4. Basic Theories of Sleep
5. Physiologic Effects of Sleep
6. Brain Waves
7. Origin of Brain Waves
8. Epilepsy
9. Psychotic Behavior and Dementia-Roles of Specific Neurotransmitter Systems
The Autonomic Nervous System and the Adrenal Medulla
1. General Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System
2. Cholinergic and Adrenergic Fibers- Secretion of Acetylcholine or Norepinephrine
3. Receptors on the Effector Organs
4. Excitatory and Inhibitory Actions of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Stimulation
5. Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Stimulation on Specific Organs
6. Function of the Adrenal Medullae
7. Relation of Stimulus Rate to Degree of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Effect
8. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic �Tone�
9. Denervation Supersensitivity of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Organs After Denervation
10. Stimulation of Discrete Organs in Some Instances and Mass Stimulation
11. Pharmacology of the Autonomic Nervous System
Cerebral Blood Flow Cerebrospinal Fluid and Brain Metabolism
1. Normal Rate of Cerebral Blood Flow
2. Regulation of Cerebral Blood Flow
3. Cerebral Microcirculation
4. Cerebral �Stroke� Occurs When Cerebral Blood Vessels Are Blocked
5. Cerebrospinal Fluid System
6. Cushioning Function of the Cerebrospinal Fluid
7. Formation, Flow, and Absorption of Cerebrospinal Fluid
8. Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure
9. Obstruction to Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid Can Cause Hydrocephalus
10. Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid and Blood-Brain Barriers
11. Brain Edema
12. Brain Metabolism
General Principles of Gastrointestinal Function Motility Nervous Control and Blood Circulation
1. General Principles of Gastrointestinal Motility
2. Neural Control of Gastrointestinal Function- Enteric Nervous System
3. Differences Between the Myenteric and Submucosal Plexuses
4. Types of Neurotransmitters Secreted by Enteric Neurons
5. Hormonal Control of Gastrointestinal Motility
6. Functional Types of Movements in the Gastrointestinal Tract
7. Gastrointestinal Blood Flow- �Splanchnic Circulation�
8. Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal Blood Supply
9. Effect of Gut Activity and Metabolic Factors on Gastrointestinal Blood Flow
10. Nervous Control of Gastrointestinal Blood Flow
Propulsion and Mixing of Food in the Alimentary Tract
1. Ingestion of Food
2. Motor Functions of the Stomach
3. Stomach Emptying and Regulation of Stomach Emptying
4. Movements of the Small Intestine
5. Mixing Contractions (Segmentation Contractions) - Movements of the Small Intestine
6. Propulsive Movements of the Small Intestine
7. Function of the Ileocecal Valve
8. Movements of the Colon
9. Other Autonomic Reflexes That Affect Bowel Activity
Secretory Functions of the Alimentary Tract
1. General Principles of Alimentary Tract Secretion
2. Anatomical Types of Glands
3. Basic Mechanisms of Stimulation of the Alimentary Tract Glands
4. Basic Mechanism of Secretion by Glandular Cells
5. Lubricating and Protective Properties of Mucus, and Importance of Mucus in the Gastrointestinal Tract
6. Secretion of Saliva
7. Nervous Regulation of Salivary Secretion
8. Esophageal Secretion
9. Characteristics of the Gastric Secretions
10. Pyloric Glands-Secretion of Mucus and Gastrin
11. Surface Mucous Cells
12. Stimulation of Gastric Acid Secretion
13. Regulation of Pepsinogen Secretion and Phases of Gastric Secretion
14. Inhibition of Gastric Secretion by Other Post-Stomach Intestinal Factors
15. Chemical Composition of Gastrin and Other Gastrointestinal Hormones
16. Pancreatic Secretion
17. Pancreatic Digestive Enzymes
18. Secretion of Bicarbonate Ions
19. Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
20. Secretion of Bile by the Liver; Functions of the Biliary Tree
21. Physiologic Anatomy of Biliary Secretion
22. Function of Bile Salts in Fat Digestion and Absorption
23. Liver Secretion of Cholesterol and Gallstone Formation
24. Secretions of the Small Intestine
25. Secretions of the Large Intestine
Digestion and Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract
1. Digestion of the Various Foods by Hydrolysis
2. Digestion of Carbohydrates
3. Digestion of Proteins
4. Digestion of Fats
5. Basic Principles of Gastrointestinal Absorption
6. Absorption in the Small Intestine
7. Absorption of Water in the Small Intestine
8. Absorption of Ions in the Small Intestine
9. Absorption of Nutrients in the Small Intestine
10. Absorption in the Large Intestine: Formation of Feces
Physiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders
1. Disorders of Swallowing and of the Esophagus
2. Disorders of the Stomach
3. Peptic Ulcer - Disorders of the Stomach
4. Specific Causes of Peptic Ulcer in the Human Being
5. Disorders of the Small Intestine
6. Abnormal Digestion of Food in the Small Intestine-Pancreatic Failure
7. Malabsorption by the Small Intestinal Mucosa-Sprue
8. Disorders of the Large Intestine
9. General Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Metabolism of Carbohydrates and Formation of Adenosine Triphosphate
1. Release of Energy from Foods, and the Concept of �Free Energy�
2. Role of Adenosine Triphosphate in Metabolism
3. Central Role of Glucose in Carbohydrate Metabolism
4. Transport of Glucose Through the Cell Membrane
5. Glycogen Is Stored in Liver and Muscle
6. Release of Energy from the Glucose Molecule by the Glycolytic Pathway
7. Summary of ATP Formation During the Breakdown of Glucose
8. Effect of ATP and ADP Cell Concentrations in Controlling the Rate of Glycolysis
9. Anaerobic Release of Energy- �Anaerobic Glycolysis�
10. Release of Energy from Glucose by the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
11. Formation of Carbohydrates from Proteins and Fats- �Gluconeogenesis�
12. Blood Glucose
Lipid Metabolism
1. Lipid Metabolism
2. Transport of Lipids in the Body Fluids
3. Fat Deposits: Adipose Tissue, Liver Lipids
4. Use of Triglycerides for Energy: Formation of Adenosine Triphosphate
5. Formation of Acetoacetic Acid in the Liver and Its Transport in the Blood
6. Synthesis of Triglycerides from Carbohydrates
7. Synthesis of Triglycerides from Proteins
8. Regulation of Energy Release from Triglycerides
9. Phospholipids
10. Cholesterol
11. Cellular Structural Functions of Phospholipids and Cholesterol- Especially for Membranes
12. Atherosclerosis
13. Basic Causes of Atherosclerosis - The Roles of Cholesterol and Lipoproteins
14. Few Major Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis
15. Prevention of Atherosclerosis
Protein Metabolism
1. Basic Properties of Protein Metabolism: Amino Acids
2. Transport and Storage of Amino Acids
3. Functional Roles of the Plasma Proteins
4. Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids
5. Use of Proteins for Energy
6. Obligatory Degradation of Proteins
7. Hormonal Regulation of Protein Metabolism
The Liver as an Organ
1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Liver
2. Hepatic Vascular and Lymph Systems
3. Metabolic Functions of the Liver
4. Measurement of Bilirubin in the Bile as a Clinical Diagnostic Tool
5. Jaundice-Excess Bilirubin in the Extracellular Fluid
Dietary Balances Regulation of Feeding Obesity and Starvation Vitamins and Minerals
1. Energy Intake and Output Are Balanced Under Steady- State Conditions
2. Dietary Balances: Energy Available in Foods
3. Methods for Determining Metabolic Utilization of Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats
4. Regulation of Food Intake and Energy Storage
5. Neural Centers Regulate Food Intake
6. Factors That Regulate Quantity of Food Intake
7. Obesity
8. Decreased Physical Activity and Abnormal Feeding Regulation as Causes of Obesity
9. Treatment of Obesity
10. Inanition, Anorexia, and Cachexia
11. Starvation
12. Vitamins
13. Vitamin A
14. Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
15. Niacin
16. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
17. Vitamin B12
18. Folic Acid (Pteroylglutamic Acid)
19. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
20. Pantothenic Acid
21. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
22. Vitamin D
23. Vitamin E
24. Vitamin K
25. Mineral Metabolism
Energetics and Metabolic Rate
1. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Functions as an �Energy Currency� in Metabolism
2. Phosphocreatine Functions as an Accessory Storage Depot for Energy and as an �ATP Buffer�
3. Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Energy
4. Summary of Energy Utilization by the Cells
5. Control of Energy Release in the Cell
6. Metabolic Rate
7. Measurement of the Whole-Body Metabolic Rate
8. Energy Metabolism-Factors That Influence Energy Output
9. Overall Energy Requirements for Daily Activities
10. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)- The Minimum Energy Expenditure for the Body to Exist
11. Energy Used for Physical Activities
Body Temperature Temperature Regulation and Fever
1. Normal Body Temperatures
2. Body Temperature Is Controlled by Balancing Heat Production Against Heat Loss
3. Regulation of Body Temperature-Role of the Hypothalamus
4. Neuronal Effector Mechanisms That Decrease or Increase Body Temperature
5. Concept of a �Set-Point� for Temperature Control
6. Behavioral Control of Body Temperature
7. Abnormalities of Body Temperature Regulation
8. Exposure of the Body to Extreme Cold
Introduction to Endocrinology
1. Coordination of Body Functions by Chemical Messengers
2. Chemical Structure and Synthesis of Hormones
3. Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood
4. Hormone Receptors and Their Activation
5. Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation
6. Second Messenger Mechanisms for Mediating Intracellular Hormonal Functions
7. Hormones That Act Mainly on the Genetic Machinery of the Cell
8. Measurement of Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
Pituitary Hormones and Their Control by the Hypothalamus
1. Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus
2. Hypothalamus Controls Pituitary Secretion
3. Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone
4. Growth Hormone Promotes Growth of Many Body Tissues
5. Growth Hormone Has Several Metabolic Effects
6. Growth Hormone Stimulates Cartilage and Bone Growth
7. Growth Hormone Exerts Much of Its Effect Through Intermediate Substances Called �Somatomedins�
8. Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretion
9. Abnormalities of Growth Hormone Secretion
10. Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus
11. Physiological Functions of ADH
12. Oxytocic Hormone
Thyroid Metabolic Hormones
1. Thyroid Metabolic Hormones
2. Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones
3. Physiologic Functions of the Thyroid Hormones
4. Thyroid Hormones Increase the Transcription of Large Numbers of Genes
5. Thyroid Hormones Increase Cellular Metabolic Activity
6. Effect of Thyroid Hormone on Growth
7. Effects of Thyroid Hormone on Specific Bodily Mechanisms
8. Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
9. Diseases of the Thyroid
10. Hyperthyroidism
11. Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism
12. Hypothyroidism
13. Cretinism
Adrenocortical Hormones
1. Adrenocortical Hormones
2. Synthesis and Secretion of Adrenocortical Hormones
3. Functions of the Mineralocorticoids- Aldosterone
4. Renal and Circulatory Effects of Aldosterone
5. Aldosterone Stimulates Sodium and Potassium Transport
6. Cellular Mechanism of Aldosterone Action
7. Possible Nongenomic Actions of Aldosterone and Other Steroid Hormones
8. Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion
9. Functions of the Glucocorticoids
10. Effects of Cortisol on Carbohydrate Metabolism
11. Effects of Cortisol on Protein Metabolism
12. Effects of Cortisol on Fat Metabolism
13. Cortisol is Important in Resisting Stress and Inflammation
14. Other Effects of Cortisol
15. Cellular Mechanism of Cortisol Action
16. Regulation of Cortisol Secretion by Adrenocorticotropic Hormone from the Pituitary Gland
17. Adrenal Androgens
18. Abnormalities of Adrenocortical Secretion
19. Hypoadrenalism-Addison�s Disease
20. Hyperadrenalism-Cushing�s Syndrome
21. Primary Aldosteronism (Conn�s Syndrome)
22. Adrenogenital Syndrome
Insulin Glucagon and Diabetes Mellitus
1. Insulin and Its Metabolic Effects
2. Effect of Insulin on Carbohydrate Metabolism
3. Effect of Insulin on Fat Metabolism
4. Effect of Insulin on Protein Metabolism and on Growth
5. Mechanisms of Insulin Secretion
6. Control of Insulin Secretion
7. Other Factors That Stimulate Insulin Secretion
8. Role of Insulin (and Other Hormones) in �Switching� Between Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism
9. Glucagon and Its Functions
10. Somatostatin Inhibits Glucagon and Insulin Secretion
11. Summary of Blood Glucose Regulation
12. Diabetes Mellitus
13. Type I Diabetes-Lack of Insulin Production by Beta Cells of the Pancreas
14. Type II Diabetes-Resistance to the Metabolic Effects of Insulin
15. Physiology of Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus
16. Treatment of Diabetes
17. Insulinoma-Hyperinsulinism
Parathyroid Hormone Calcitonin Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism Vitamin D Bone and Teeth
1. Overview of Calcium and Phosphate Regulation in the Extracellular Fluid and Plasma
2. Bone and Its Relation to Extracellular Calcium and Phosphate
3. Precipitation and Absorption of Calcium and Phosphate in Bone-Equilibrium with the Extracellular Fluids
4. Calcium Exchange Between Bone and Extracellular Fluid
5. Deposition and Absorption of Bone-Remodeling of Bone
6. Vitamin D and Actions of Vitamin D
7. Parathyroid Hormone
8. Effect of Parathyroid Hormone on Calcium and Phosphate Concentrations in the Extracellular Fluid
9. Control of Parathyroid Secretion by Calcium Ion Concentration
10. Calcitonin
11. Summary of Control of Calcium Ion Concentration
12. Hypoparathyroidism
13. Primary Hyperparathyroidism
14. Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
15. Rickets-Vitamin D Deficiency
16. Osteoporosis-Decreased Bone Matrix
17. Physiology of the Teeth
18. Function of the Different Parts of the Teeth
19. Dentition
20. Mineral Exchange in Teeth
21. Dental Abnormalities
Reproductive and Hormonal Functions of the Male and Function of the Pineal Gland
1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Male Sexual Organs
2. Spermatogenesis
3. Steps of Spermatogenesis
4. Function of the Seminal Vesicles
5. Function of the Prostate Gland
6. Semen
7. Abnormal Spermatogenesis and Male Fertility
8. Neuronal Stimulus for Performance of the Male Sexual Act
9. Stages of the Male Sexual Act
10. Secretion, Metabolism, and Chemistry of the Male Sex Hormone
11. Functions of Testosterone
12. Basic Intracellular Mechanism of Action of Testosterone
13. Control of Male Sexual Functions by Hormones from the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary Gland
14. Abnormalities of Male Sexual Function
15. Prostate Gland and Its Abnormalities
16. Hypogonadism in the Male
17. Testicular Tumors and Hypergonadism in the Male
18. Pineal Gland-Its Function in Controlling Seasonal Fertility in Some Animals
Female Physiology Before Pregnancy and Female Hormones
1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Female Sexual Organs
2. Female Hormonal System
3. Monthly Ovarian Cycle; Function of the Gonadotropic Hormones
4. Gonadotropic Hormones and Their Effects on the Ovaries
5. Ovarian Follicle Growth- �Follicular� Phase of the Ovarian Cycle
6. Corpus Luteum-�Luteal� Phase of the Ovarian Cycle
7. Functions of the Ovarian Hormones-Estradiol and Progesterone
8. Chemistry of the Sex Hormones
9. Functions of the Estrogens- Their Effects on the Primary and Secondary Female Sex Characteristics
10. Functions of Progesterone
11. Monthly Endometrial Cycle and Menstruation
12. Regulation of the Female Monthly Rhythm-Interplay Between the Ovarian and Hypothalamic-Pituitary Hormones
13. Feedback Oscillation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian System
14. Puberty and Menarche
15. Menopause
16. Abnormalities of Secretion by the Ovaries
17. Female Sexual Act
18. Female Fertility
Pregnancy and Lactation
1. Maturation and Fertilization of the Ovum
2. Early Nutrition of the Embryo
3. Function of the Placenta: Developmental and Physiologic Anatomy of the Placenta
4. Hormonal Factors in Pregnancy
5. Response of the Mother�s Body to Pregnancy
6. Changes in the Maternal Circulatory System During Pregnancy
7. Increased Uterine Excitability Near Term - Parturition
8. Onset of Labor-A Positive Feedback Mechanism for Its Initiation - Parturition
9. Abdominal Muscle Contractions During Labor
10. Mechanics of Parturition
11. Separation and Delivery of the Placenta
12. Labor Pains
13. Involution of the Uterus After Parturition
14. Parturition
15. Lactation
16. Development of the Breasts - Lactation
17. Initiation of Lactation-Function of Prolactin
18. Ejection (or �Let-Down�) Process in Milk Secretion-Function of Oxytocin
19. Milk Composition and the Metabolic Drain on the Mother Caused by Lactation
Fetal and Neonatal Physiology
1. Growth and Functional Development of the Fetus
2. Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life
3. Onset of Breathing - Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life
4. Circulatory Readjustments at Birth - Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life
5. Nutrition of the Neonate - Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life
6. Special Functional Problems in the Neonate
7. Special Problemsof Prematurity
8. Growth and Development of the Child
Sports Physiology
1. Sports Physiology
2. Muscles in Exercise: Strength, Power, and Endurance of Muscles
3. Muscle Metabolic Systems in Exercise
4. Phosphocreatine-Creatine System - Muscles in Exercise
5. Nutrients Used During Muscle Activity - Muscles in Exercise
6. Effect of Athletic Training on Muscles and Muscle Performance
7. Respiration in Exercise
8. Cardiovascular System in Exercise
9. Body Heat in Exercise
10. Body Fluids and Salt in Exercise
11. Drugs and Athletes
12. Body Fitness Prolongs Life
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